正文

德萊頓和班揚

英國散文的流變(珍藏本) 作者:王佐良 著


第 三 章 復辟時期與十八世紀上半

1660年,英國革命政權(quán)崩潰,國王查理二世由法回國復位,但是政權(quán)掌握在貴族和資產(chǎn)階級聯(lián)合組成的新的國會手中,經(jīng)過1688年的“光榮革命”,這一新的政治格局穩(wěn)定下來。文藝上也出現(xiàn)了一個以新古典主義為標志的新的局面。

以散文而論,經(jīng)過了文藝復興時期一百多年的多方運用,說理文與抒情文兩大類都得到很大發(fā)展,到了十七世紀中葉,在風格上逐漸趨向平易。

把平易確立為主導風格,是經(jīng)過幾代作家努力的結(jié)果。這當中有各種人物,政見與思想傾向并不一致。

德萊頓和班揚

首先要提到德萊頓。約翰·德萊頓(John Dryden, 1631—1700)是1660年后英國文壇上的紅人,他迎合新復位的國王查理二世的朝廷,倡導法國式的新古典主義,在“英雄詩劇”、政治諷刺詩、文論、古典作品的翻譯等各方面都有建樹。他的散文則寫得平易、親切、口語化,可以著名文論《論戲劇詩》中論莎士比亞的一段為例:


He was the man who of all modern, and perhaps ancient poets, had the largest and most comprehensive soul. All the images of Nature were still present to him, and he drew them, not laboriously, but luckily; when he describes anything, you more than see it, you feel it too. Those who accuse him to have wanted learning, give him the greater commendation: he was naturally learned; he needed not the spectacles of books to read Nature; he looked inwards, and found her there. I cannot say he is everywhere alike; were he so, I should do him injury to compare him with the greatest of mankind. He is many times flat, insipid; his comic wit degenerating into clenches, his serious swelling into bombast. But he is always great, when some great occasion is presented to him; no man can say he ever had a fit subject for his wit, and did not then raise himself as high above the rest of poets.

—Of Dramatic Poesy (1668)


他在所有近代——也許還有古代——的詩人當中,有最寬廣最靈敏的才智,他的心靈洞悉宇宙萬象,能夠輕巧地,而不是費力地,描繪它們。每當他寫一物,你不僅能夠眼見,而且能夠感到。有人嫌他缺乏學問,實際上這是給了他更大的贊美,因為他天生就有學問,不需拿書本當眼鏡去研究自然,只須內(nèi)觀己心,自然就在那里。我不能說他處處都好;要是那樣,最偉大的作家也不足與他相比了。他常平淡乏味,有時機智成了諢謔,有時嚴肅變?yōu)楦】洹5侵灰獣r機不凡,則他也能身手不凡,從無題材合適而他不能寫得大大超過其他詩人的情況。

在這里,德萊頓不是以一個理論家,而是以一個同行作家的身份在說話,而且說的是真實感受。這正是英國式文論的精神。以后約翰遜博士等人,也是能做到不因自己的理論傾向而埋沒屬于不同傾向的作品的優(yōu)點,也是著重具體分析,不怕談切身感受。德萊頓的這篇文論還是用會話體寫的,穿插有風景描寫,顯得活潑,帶抒情色彩。

德萊頓屬于在朝派。在野派中也有重要的散文作家,例如班揚。約翰·班揚(John Bunyan, 1628—88)本是小爐匠,當過兵,為革命時期的國會打過仗,復辟后成為不服國教者,在民間私自講道,為政府監(jiān)禁多年。在獄中他寫了《天路歷程》(The Pilgrim's Progress, 1675)一書,用寓言的形式敘述虔誠的基督徒在一個罪惡的世界里的經(jīng)歷。以下是他們走進“名利場”后的遭遇:


... they contrived here to set up a fair; a fair wherein should be sold all sorts of vanity, and that it should last all the year long. Therefore at this fair are all such merchandise sold, as houses, lands, trades, places, honours, preferments, titles, countries, kingdoms, lusts, pleasures, and delights of all sorts, as whores, bawds, wives, husbands, children, masters, servants, lives, blood, bodies, souls, silver, gold, pearls, precious stones, and what not.

And, moreover, at this fair there is at all times to be seen juggling, cheats, games, plays, fools, apes, knaves, and rogues, and that of all sorts.

Here are to be seen too, and that for nothing, thefts, murders, adulteries, false-swearers, and that of a bloodred colour.


……這些人在此設(shè)立了一個市場。這是一個出賣各種名利的市場,全年開放,出售各種貨物,例如房,地,行業(yè),地位,榮譽,官職,稱號,領(lǐng)土,王國;滿足各種淫欲、歡樂、趣味,備有妓女,老鴇,妻子,丈夫,兒童,主人,仆人,生命,血,身體,靈魂,金,銀,珍珠,寶石等等。

而且此處終年可見變戲法的,騙子,搞游戲的,演戲的,傻瓜,學舌者,壞蛋,流氓,各色各類。

這里還不用花錢就可看到偷竊,殺人,通奸,作偽證等等,全涂上了血紅的顏色。

而等基督徒們來到場里,除了他們的衣服、語言引起當?shù)厝说某靶χ?,還面臨這樣一個場面:

One chanced mockingly, beholding the carriage of the men, to say unto them, What Will ye buy? But they, looking gravely upon him, said, We buy the Truth. At that, there was an occasion taken to despise the men the more; some mocking, some taunting, some speaking reproachfully, and some calling upon others to smite them. At last things came to a hubbub, and great stir in the fair, insomuch that allorder was confounded. Now was word presently brought to the great one of the fair, who quickly came down, and deputed some of his most trusty friends to take these men into examination, about whom the fair was almost overturned. So the men were brought to examination; and they that sat upon them, asked them whence they came, whither they went, and what they did there in such an unusual garb? The men told them, that they were pilgrims and strangers in the world, and that they were going to their own country, which was the heavenly Jerusalem; and that they had given none occasion to the men of the town, nor yet to the merchandisers, thus to abuse them, and to let them in their journey. Except it was, for that, when one asked them what they would buy, they said, they would buy the Truth. But they that were appointed to examine them, did not believe them to be any other than Bedlams and mad, or else such as came to put all things into a confusion in the fair. Therefore they took them, and beat them, and besmeared them with dirt, and then put them into the cage, that they might be made a spectacle to all the men of the fair.


有一人看見這幾個教徒的舉止,就挖苦地問他們:“你們買什么?”他們莊重地看著他,答道:“我們買真理?!边@話一說,引起人們對他們更大的鄙視,有的嘲笑,有的謾罵,有的責備,有的叫人來打他們。最后人聲嘈雜,市場沸騰,亂了起來。事情傳到市場主管那里,他走了過來,差他的幾個最親信的朋友把這幾個鬧翻市場的人帶去審問。審問者問他們來自何地,前往何地,為什么穿那樣奇怪的裝束,想在市場里干什么?他們答道:他們是過路的教徒,世界上的陌生人,前往他們自己的國土,即天國耶路撒冷;他們沒有招惹當?shù)鼐用?,更不必說賣貨商人,不知為什么要這樣罵他們,不讓他們繼續(xù)走路。他們只做了一件事情,就是當有人問他們想買什么的時候,他們說想買真理。但是審問者認為這幾個人都是瘋子,狂人,或是故意來搗亂市場的家伙。于是把他們抓住,打了一頓,滿身涂泥,關(guān)在鐵籠里,放在市場里示眾。

通過以上的引文,我們可以略見《天路歷程》這本群眾喜愛的名著的一些特點:在精神上崇揚追求真理的虔誠信徒,而譴責壓迫者、欺騙者、享樂者;在語言上用純樸的民間口語,又有濃厚的《圣經(jīng)》風格;在技巧上采取寓言形式,然而敘事寫物十分真實,實際上是一種新的文學樣式的先驅(qū),即寫實小說。

值得中國讀者注意的,是英國不服國教者在思想上和文學上的重要地位。他們以工匠和小市民為主體,繼掘地派、平均派的余烈,醞釀著“饑餓請愿”、“毯子進軍”等等的未來斗爭,其思想感情構(gòu)成英國民族性格中的一個歷時長遠、影響深刻的成分。從文學上說,十八世紀寫實小說的興起是一件大事,而它的創(chuàng)始人,一個是這里所談的班揚,一個是即將出現(xiàn)的笛福,都是不服國教者。

報刊文學的興起

班揚的散文是新散文的一種。散文另一方面的發(fā)展見于報刊文章,它們也力求平易,但又要在平易中見文雅。

近代報刊的出現(xiàn)說明一種新的傳播工具已經(jīng)進入社會生活。用語言或文字傳播新聞當然是古已有之,但要等到十八世紀之初,才有定期出版、專人編輯、面向一般讀者的刊物。這些刊物不僅傳播時事和社會新聞,而且發(fā)表議論。這后者是一個新因素,由于有這個因素,刊物就不只是宮廷公報或街頭傳單的重演,而變成現(xiàn)代的輿論工具,能夠?qū)ι鐣┘訌姶笥绊憽.敃r英國已經(jīng)出現(xiàn)的托雷與輝格兩大政黨之爭,促成了利用了報刊的發(fā)展,而廣大中產(chǎn)階級讀者群的存在又使得報刊能有市場,于是從世紀之初,各種名目的報刊相繼出現(xiàn),而當時文壇上的頭面人物無不與這家或那家報刊發(fā)生關(guān)系,或主筆政,或撰文稿:艾狄生、斯梯爾、笛福、斯威夫特、菲爾丁、約翰遜、哥爾德斯密等都是。

這當中,主持《旁觀者》報(The Spectator, 1711—12)的艾狄生(Joseph Addison, 1672—1719)在確定報刊文學的作用、格調(diào)和寫法上起了特殊作用?!杜杂^者》報也有一些報道,但更多的是議論。議論的范圍廣泛,除時事外,還涉及社會風尚、個人修養(yǎng)、科學發(fā)明、文藝鑒賞等等,其目的在于提高社會的文明程度??锉旧淼母裾{(diào)是高的,在寫法上也下工夫,用艾狄生自己的話說,就是要“使教育有趣,消遣有用”,“用才智活躍道德,用道德陶冶才智”。他還有一句名言,說明自己辦刊物的用意:


It was said of Socrates, that he brought Philosophy down from Heaven, to inhabit among Men; and I shall be ambitious to have it said of me, that I have brought Philosophy out of Closets and Libraries, Schools and Colleges, to dwell in Clubs and Assemblies, at Tea-Tables and in Coffee-Houses.


有人說蘇格拉底把哲學從天上拉到了地上與人共居,我的野心是希望有人說我把哲學引出私室、書房、學校、大學,讓它進了俱樂部和會議廳,停留在午茶桌上和咖啡店里。

(《旁觀者》報,1711年3月12日)

那么,艾狄生又是怎樣實踐他的主張的呢?或者說,他到底寫了什么樣的報刊文章呢?我們舉一個實例:

The last Progress that I made with this Intention, was about three Months ago, when we had a Current Report of the King of France's Death. As I foresaw this would produce a new Face of things in Europe, and many curious Speculations in our British Coffee-hous-es, I was very desirous to learn the Thoughts of our most eminent Politicians on that Occasion.

That I might begin as near the Fountain-head as possible, I first of all called in at St. James's, where I found the whole outward Room in a Buzz of Politics. The Speculations were but very indifferent towards the Door, but grew finer as you advanced to the upper end of the Room, and were so very much improved by a Knot of Theorists, who sate in the inner Room, within the Steams of the Coffee-Pot, that I there heard the whole Spanish Monarchy disposed of, and all the Line of Bourbon provided for in less than a Quarter of an Hour.

I afterwards called in at Giles's where I saw a Board of French Gentlemen sitting upon the Life and Death of their Grand Monarque. Those among them who had espoused the Wigg Interest, very positively affirmed, that he departed this Life about a Week since, and therefore proceeded without any further Delay to the Release of their Friends on the Gallies, and to their own Re-establishment; but finding they could not agree among themselves, I proceeded on my intended Progress.

Upon my Arrival at Jenny Man's. I saw an alerte young Fellow that cocked his Hat upon a Friend of his who entered just at the same time with my self, and accosted him after the following manner. Well Jack, the old Prig is dead at last. Sharp's the Word. Now or never Boy. Up to the Walls of Paris directly. With several other deep Reflections of the same Nature.

I met with very little variation in the Politics between Charing-Cross and Covent-Garden. And upon my going into Will's I found their Discourse was gone off from the Death of the French King to that of Monsieur Boileau, Racine, Corneille, and several other Poets, whom they regretted on this Occasion, as Persons who would have obliged the World with very noble Elegies on the Death of so great a Prince, and so eminent a Patron of Learning.


我上次的巡游在大約三個月前,當時我們聽到一條消息,說是法國國王去世了。我料想此事將使歐洲換上新貌,會引起我們英國咖啡店里各種奇妙議論,也就很想了解一下我們的一些顯要的政治人物對它有什么想法。

為了盡量從源頭開始,我首先走進圣詹姆士咖啡店,發(fā)現(xiàn)整個前廳人聲嘈雜,都在談?wù)撜?。坐在門口的人還只是泛泛而談,越往里走越談得好,等到走到里廳,更是精彩,那里有一群理論家坐在咖啡壺噴出的香氣之中高談闊論,不到一刻鐘,就把整個西班牙皇室打發(fā)掉了,又把全部波旁王朝都安置好了。

接著我去到茄爾斯咖啡店,那里法國紳士們在開會討論他們君王的生死問題。他們當中擁護革新派的人肯定地說,國王已在一周前離開人世,并立即進而談到他們那些受苦的朋友們將被釋放,他們自己也會恢復原來地位。但我發(fā)現(xiàn)他們意見并不一致,就照原定計劃繼續(xù)我的行程。

等我走進詹妮·曼咖啡店,我看見一個很神氣的年輕人歪戴帽子,向一個同我一起進店的朋友說了這樣一番話:杰克,老頑固終于死了,得快干了!機不可失,伙計!直上巴黎!以及諸如此類的深刻意見。

在恰林克勞斯和考文特花園之間,人們的政見沒有多少差別。等我走進維爾咖啡店,我聽到的議論已經(jīng)從法國國王之死轉(zhuǎn)到幾位詩人了,就是波瓦羅先生、拉辛先生、高乃依先生和另外幾位,人們遺憾他們早死了,認為否則他們會寫出極好的挽詩來哀悼這位偉大的君王和提倡學術(shù)的恩主。

這位記者就這樣從官府地區(qū)走到商人地區(qū),一家一家咖啡店地巡游一番,聽到了各種議論:律師們在談該由何人去繼承法國王位,魚市商人們在談法國國王之死會怎樣有助于多打鯖魚,兩位不同信仰的老百姓爭論著到底死去的法國國王像奧古斯特斯還是像尼羅,直到他走進最后的一家咖啡店,在那里:

The first Object I met in the Coffee-room was a Person who expressed a great Grief for the Death of the French King; but upon his explaining himself, I found his Sorrow did not arise from the Loss of the Monarch, but for his having sold out of the Bank about three Days before he heard the News of it: Upon which a Haberdasher, who was the Oracle of the Coffee-house, and had his Circle of Admirers about him, called several to witness that he had declared his Opinion above a Week before, that the French King was certainly dead; to which he added, that considering the late Advices we had received from France, it was impossible that it could be otherwise. As he was laying these together, and dictating to his Hearers with great Authority, there came in a Gentleman from Garraway's, who told us that there were several Letters from France just come in, with Advice that the King was in good Health, and was gone out a Hunting the very Morning the Post came away: Upon which the Haberdasher stole off his Hat that hung upon a Wooden Pegg by him, and retired to his Shop with great Confusion. This Intelligence put a Stop to my Travels, which I had prosecuted with much Satisfaction; not being a little pleased to hear so many different Opinions upon so great an Event, and to observe how naturally upon such a Piece of News every one is apt to consider it with a regard to his particular Interest and Advantage.

The Spectator (12 June 1712)

我遇見的第一個人對法國國王之死表示極大的悲痛,但等他說下去,我發(fā)現(xiàn)他悲痛的其實不是法國國王,而是他在聽見消息之前三天已經(jīng)把他的錢從銀行取走了。這話一說,在場一位紡織品商人——他是這家咖啡店里的預言家,常有一群欣賞者圍著他轉(zhuǎn)——叫了幾個人來證明他早在一周前就已說過法國國王確實死了,并且補充說:根據(jù)他最近從法國得到的消息,事情不可能不是這樣。正當他把這些消息一一報道,并向他的聽眾作權(quán)威性的發(fā)言的時候,來了一位紳士,他說方才在蓋雷維咖啡店看到剛從法國來的幾封信,說國王身體很好,在郵件送出的當天早晨還出去打了獵。一聽此話,那位紡織品商人偷偷把掛在身旁衣架上的帽子拿了下來,很窘地回到他的鋪子里去了。這一消息使我結(jié)束了我一直進展得順利的旅行,心里感到滿意,由于聽到了關(guān)于這件大事的許多不同意見,觀察到對于同一新聞人們各因本身的興趣和利益而自然而然地各有看法。

(《旁觀者》報,1712年6月12日)

這文章用了悠閑的絮談筆法,帶著溫和的嘲諷,把倫敦若干家咖啡店里的各種人物和議論寫了出來,而且文章有頭有尾,最后還來了一個意外之筆,是經(jīng)過精心組織的。換言之,這篇報道是頗有藝術(shù)的。艾狄生的風格,后來的約翰遜博士曾評為“親切而不鄙俚,典雅而不炫耀,值得講究英文風格之士日夜讀之”。

《旁觀者》報出版不久,就造成巨大影響,銷路達三千份。按照艾狄生自己的估計,一份約有二十人看,因此讀者總數(shù)達到每期六萬人。這在十八世紀初年是一個驚人的數(shù)字,可見新起的中產(chǎn)階級讀者群已是如何巨大,同時也說明《旁觀者》報受到了多大的歡迎。

就是時至今日,艾狄生所創(chuàng)導的報刊編法和文風也在英語國家的某些老資格的刊物中依稀可見。雖然經(jīng)歷了作者、讀者、思想潮流、社會趣味、印刷技術(shù)、廣告影響等等的巨大變化,倫敦、愛丁堡、都柏林、紐約、波士頓等等地方仍然在出版著一些周刊、月刊,它們愿意勻出篇幅,發(fā)表幾篇個人觀感式的隨筆小品,刊載若干書評、劇評、樂評、藝評、影評,關(guān)心所謂“生活質(zhì)量”的提高,仍然注意文風,力求文章寫得自然、親切,而又有文采。這些情況說明報刊文學中有一個獨特的英國傳統(tǒng),至今還有生命力。

笛福的現(xiàn)代性

報刊文學中最活躍的人物卻不是艾狄生,也不是與他合作辦報的斯梯爾,而是笛福。

丹尼爾·笛福(Daniel Defoe, 1660—1731)活動頻繁,做過小商人,編輯,記者,政治評論家,為政府干過秘密差使,又因?qū)懳牡米镎^牢,最后則成為英國第一個名符其實的現(xiàn)實主義小說家。他曾長期從事報刊工作,寫了長短各類文章五百多篇,不少至今還值一讀。這些文章的特點是:

1.為不服從國教的商人、小市民說話。他們富于民主精神,講求實際,注意工商業(yè)的發(fā)展。笛福以身為他們中的一員自傲,多次寫文歌頌中產(chǎn)階級的偉大,提出“自由與財產(chǎn)!”的口號。

2.觀察敏銳,注意細節(jié),能把所見所聞準確、生動地記錄下來。同時有豐富的想象力,能根據(jù)傳聞和前人記載構(gòu)想某些未曾親歷的事件,如在《大疫年日記》(1722)中所寫的1664—1665年的倫敦瘟疫,就曾使不少讀者信以為作者目睹的。

3.會說故事,能夠繪影繪聲,娓娓動聽。

4.文字平易,句子短,口語化,速度快。特別善于模擬小市民、店員、家庭婦女、工匠、仆人、路途上的旅客等等的口吻、腔調(diào),許多段落讀之如讀二十世紀小說。

總起來說,笛福同我們的距離是驚人地近;無論在思想、感情、價值標準、文章風格等方面,他都表現(xiàn)出驚人的現(xiàn)代性。

以上的這些特點,也就使笛福勝任于另一個重大的文學任務(wù),即在英國的文學地圖上牢牢樹立起現(xiàn)實主義小說的地位。當他在生命的晚年來寫長篇故事的時候,他也是做得同樣出色,結(jié)果寫出了《魯賓遜漂流記》、《摩爾·弗蘭德斯》、《羅克珊娜》等一系列不朽作品。

魯賓遜的世界意義

這當中《魯賓遜漂流記》(Robinson Crusoe, 1719)就是至今吸引全世界讀者的小說。書的主要情節(jié)是有事實根據(jù)的:1704—1709年間,一個名叫賽爾扣克的英國水手,曾長期孤居于一個遠洋荒島。這樣的事有一時的新聞價值,但不易寫好,因為荒島生活一開始也許顯得新鮮,時間長了就容易因為缺少變化而成為單調(diào)沉悶。

笛福的本領(lǐng)卻在于:他把這個故事不僅寫得極為生動有趣,而且賦予它以對幾乎所有的人——一般讀者,普通市民,嚴肅的思想家如盧梭,文學家如柯爾律治,甚至創(chuàng)立革命性新學說的政治經(jīng)濟學家如馬克思——都有啟發(fā)的重大社會意義。

這意義的中心點——也就是本書最有趣又最使人深思的一點——就是人如何處理好同大自然的關(guān)系,使自己不僅能維持生命,而且日子越過越好??棵翡J的頭腦和能干的雙手,靠勞動,魯賓遜做到了這一點。

船只的沉沒和同伴的死亡意味著過去所熟悉、所依賴的世界終結(jié)了,荒島上的棲息意味著一切得從頭開始。魯賓遜所面對的是人生最基本、最實際的難題,即衣、食、住、行。在這個異常艱苦的新環(huán)境里,懶漢、懦夫、宿命論者只配被消滅,而能靠雙手勞動的堅強的人則能重建自己的家園。

我們看魯賓遜在初期的沮喪之后如何投入維持生命的斗爭。他趁落潮選擇了最近的距離游到沉船上,查看了船里還剩下什么未給海水浸濕的東西,然后用船上的木料做了一個筏子,裝上了急需的面包、大米、奶酪、酒、衣服、火槍、彈藥等等,分成幾次運到島上,每次都十分艱苦,好幾次木筏險些兒翻了,然而靠了意志、鎮(zhèn)靜和能力,每次都渡過難關(guān),連人帶東西都安然抵達。

另一次游泳,另一只更好的筏子,另一個更大的收獲……一共十二次,連木匠的工具、釘子和磨刀石都運到了岸上。

生活重新開始了,并且逐步在改善,首先是吃飽肚子,其次挖好洞穴,使它能擋風雨,防襲擊;同時動手做桌子、凳子,讓自己舒服起來,甚至在幾次試驗失敗之后,終于用陶土燒出了能煮肉湯的沙鍋!這后者引起了魯賓遜這樣的感慨:


No joy at a thing of so mean a nature was even equal to mine, when I found I had made an earthen pot that would bear the fire; and I had hardly patience to stay till they were cold, before I set one upon the fire again, with some water in it, to boil me some meat, which it did admirably well; and with a piece of kid I made some very good broth, though I wanted oatmeal and several other ingredients requisite to make it so good as I would have had it been.

沒有任何人能由于這樣一件普通東西感到比我更大的快樂了!我終于做成了一個能耐火的鍋!沒等它冷下來,我就又把這鍋放在火上,倒了一點水在里面,放上一塊小山羊肉煮著。這鍋極為好使,一會兒就煮出了絕好的肉湯,只不過缺了麥片和其它作料,否則味道可以更美!

這里有一個自己能動手改善生活的人的驕傲、安慰;任何別人處于同樣境地會有同樣心情,但是只有笛福能寫得這樣實際、具體、細節(jié)分明,而最后關(guān)于作料的一筆不僅增加了真實感,還道出笛福是如何地富于人生經(jīng)驗,又如何地日子好了還想更好。

這也就透露出了笛福的社會地位:商人。在這海外貿(mào)易越來越頻繁、英國的工商業(yè)越來越發(fā)達的歷史時刻,只有商人才不怕艱險困苦,遠涉重洋,取得遠處的資源,并在所到之處開辟市場;只有商人才能如此勤奮,足智多謀,在最不利的環(huán)境里站穩(wěn)腳跟。

不僅站穩(wěn),而且乘機擴充。魯賓遜后來搭救了一個另一個島上的黑人,把他訓練成服侍自己的奴隸。荒島上的情況開始復雜起來,有了人際關(guān)系,有了社會,一個小小的殖民地出現(xiàn)了。

魯賓遜并不把“禮拜五”(這是他給予這個黑人的名字,他掌握著對后者人身的各種權(quán)利,包括命名)當作平等的同伴,而是使喚他,訓練他,使他成為有用的勞力——正同當時以及后世的商人、資本家們在世界各處擴充殖民帝國,對“土著”一律懾之以武力,馴之以“西方文明”。

魯賓遜并不是一個深刻的人物。他的精神生活似乎限于表層,并不接觸真正的靈魂。他敬上帝,但這是一個不服從國教的商人的上帝,照管他個人的良心,并且會幫他致富。自強不息是他真正的信條;當他已把島上的洞穴建成一個“英國人的堡壘”式的家,每天下午喝起英國人的茶的時候,他是頗感自滿的。他的真正的愉快是清點他的財產(chǎn):書中多處寫到他點數(shù)藏在箱子里的錢幣,即使在無人的島上,他也一邊感嘆金錢毫無用處,一邊仍然數(shù)得起勁,而且毫不馬虎,一先令一便士都要數(shù)個清楚。

能把這一切如實寫下,使我們讀得有趣,這便是笛福的藝術(shù)的力量所在。這部小說的結(jié)構(gòu)是松散的,最后奇峰突起,增加了魯賓遜回國途中在歐洲大陸的荒野中遇見狼群的驚險情節(jié),也與中心故事無關(guān)。這也說明近代小說脫胎于中世紀口述故事,仍不免有將若干情節(jié)串聯(lián)起來,可以隨意臨時增刪的毛病。但是此書以主人公的遇險和被救為始終,畢竟有了一個中心,而笛福的拿手本領(lǐng),如會說故事,能夠生動地描繪細節(jié),文字又清楚、流暢、口語化,則都得到了充分的施展。

近代英國小說找到了笛福這樣一個商人而不是文人作為創(chuàng)始者,而笛福又以《魯賓遜漂流記》這樣一部實實在在卻又大有新意的作品吸引了世界各地廣大讀者,這也許不是歷史的偶然,其結(jié)果則是:一種描繪近代社會中某類關(guān)鍵人物的文學形式破土而出,顯示了它的生氣和魅力。這是一個饒有意義的開始,一系列新事物將接踵而至。

摩爾:現(xiàn)實主義的力量

如果說魯賓遜有廣泛的世界意義,那么笛福另一部小說的女主角摩爾的遭遇更能使我們看清十八世紀初年的英國社會。

《摩爾·弗蘭德斯》(Moll Flanders, 1722)的故事同樣吸引人,但是背景更為深厚,書里有一整個倫敦下層社會,帶著它的諸色人等的憧憧黑影,它的街道、市場、商店、家宅,它的叫賣聲和在笛福筆下永遠充滿生氣的人物對話。

這里同樣有細節(jié)的真實。除了笛福,誰能寫出摩爾在靠行竊謀生的時候所用的各種方法,使得書的這一部分可以稱為“偷竊大全”呢?

然而書的意義卻在于它寫出了一個窮苦女人在那樣的英國社會里必然要遭到的命運。摩爾的母親就是在剛生下她之后,因偷竊罪而被遣送到美洲弗吉尼亞去的。摩爾自己幾經(jīng)掙扎,也免不了同樣因偷竊罪而被遣送到弗吉尼亞。摩爾善良、真誠,對生活充滿了幻想,但很小就做了女仆,受到少爺們的誘惑而失身,然后被踢出大門,于是浪跡江湖,碰上或好或壞的男人,最后淪為小偷。在當時的英國社會,有千千萬萬的貧窮弱女子有同樣凄慘的身世。

笛福是不怕端出這故事的教訓的。書中一個人物做了他的代言人:


"I wonder at you," says the sister. "Betty wants but one thing, but she had as good want everything, for the market is against our sex just now; and if a young woman have beauty, birth, breeding, wit, sense, manners, modesty, and all these to the extreme, yet if she have not money, she's nobody, she had as good want them all, for nothing but money now recommends a woman; the men play the game all into their own hands."


“你這話怎么說的,”姐姐說。“這妞兒缺少一樣,就等于什么都缺了!因為眼前市場對我們女人不利。如果一個年輕女人有美貌,家世,教養(yǎng),才智,見地,風度,婦德,每樣都好到極點,可是就缺錢,那她就算不上一個人物,不如什么也沒有。現(xiàn)在只有錢才能推薦一個女人,男人會搞這套玩意兒,占盡一切便宜?!?/p>

然而這小說卻不只是流水賬似的敘述加上說教,而有著強烈的吸引力。首先,由于笛福會說故事,使我們讀著讀著,不由自主地卷入書中主要人物的命運。其次,他的細節(jié)描寫不是一般的真實,而是真實之中還有深度。我們看摩爾怎樣第二次行竊:

I went out now by Day-light, and wanderd about I knew not whither, and in search of I knew not what, when the Devil put a Snare in my way of a dreadful Nature indeed, and such a one as I have never had before or since; going thro' Aldersgate-street, there was a pretty little Child had been at a Dancing-School, and was a going home all alone, and my Prompter, like a true De-vil, set me upon this innocent Creature; I talk'd to it, and it prattl'd to me again, and I took it by the Hand and led it a long till I came to a pav'd Alley that goes into Bartho-lomew-Close, and I led it in there; the Child said that was not its way home; I said, yes, my Dear, it is, I'll show you the way home; the Child had a little Necklace on of Gold Beads, and I had my Eye upon that, and in the dark of the Alley I stoop'd, pretending to mend the Child's Clog that was loose, and took off her Necklace, and the Child never felt it, and so led the Child on again: Here, I say, the Devil put me upon killing the Child in the dark Alley, that it might not Cry, but the very thought frighted me so that I was ready to drop down, but I turn'd the Child about and had it go back again, for that was not its way home; the Child said so she would, and I went thro' into Bartholomew-Close, and then turn'd round to another Passage that goes into Long-lane, so away into Charterhouse-Yard, and out into St. John's street; then crossing into Smithfield, went down Chicklane, and into Field-lane, to Holbourn-bridge, when mixing with the Crowd of People usually passing there, it was not possible to have been found out; and thus I made my second Sally into the World.


現(xiàn)在我白天就出去,無目的地游來蕩去,找尋著什么我也不知,這時魔鬼把一個圈套安在我的路上,其性質(zhì)十分可怕,我過去和后來都從未再碰過。我走過奧臺斯門街的時候,看見一個漂亮的小女孩從舞蹈學校出來,獨自一人回家。我心里的魔鬼挑起了我的壞心,叫我對這天真的孩子下手。我就同她說話,她喁喁地回答我,我握住她的手,領(lǐng)著她走進一條石子鋪的小巷,從那里又進到巴索羅繆場地。孩子說那不是她回家的路,我說是的,親愛的,我會把你帶到家的。孩子戴著一條金項鏈,我早已看中了,在小巷黑暗的地方我彎下身來,裝著是替她系好松了的木鞋,隨手把項鏈摘了下來,孩子一點兒也沒覺察。我領(lǐng)著她再往前走。這時我心里的惡鬼要我在黑巷里把孩子掐死,那里不怕她叫喊——可是這一念頭太可怕了,叫我腿都發(fā)軟了,我讓孩子轉(zhuǎn)過身來,說是路走錯了,她該走原路回去,孩子也說她自己會走了。于是我穿過巴索羅繆場地,從另一個通道進入朗巷,再走到渣特霍斯方場,進入圣約翰街,接著越過司密斯園,直下乞克巷,進入菲爾德巷,到達荷爾本橋,在那里混入人群,再也不怕給人認出了。就這樣,我對大世界作了第二次的進擊。

這里面有許多意想不到的筆觸,摩爾彎身為女孩系帶就是其一,使得情節(jié)更加生動,而居然想要在黑巷殺死女孩,又使故事增加了可怕的陰影,摩爾的起念、轉(zhuǎn)念也使讀者更加了解她的為人。就連最后一連串的街名也是有其作用的:表明行蹤的迂回曲折,表明經(jīng)歷的困難不少,最后又表明這一切確確實實發(fā)生在倫敦的鬧市地區(qū),任何久居倫敦的人一看就感到親切的。

這一切,說明笛福的現(xiàn)實主義非同小可,它是有深度,也有藝術(shù)的。

這一切,也說明英國散文有了一個新的用武之地?,F(xiàn)實主義小說需要一種新的務(wù)實而又有伸縮性的散文,笛福所提供的正是這樣的散文。

敘事散文的進一步發(fā)展

笛福之后,寫實小說繼續(xù)發(fā)展,敘事散文也起了多方面的變化。

后起的小說家,有各種人物,散文風格也各有不同。

這當中,理查蓀(Samuel Richardson, 1689—1761)用一系列書信講一個連續(xù)的故事,從而樹立了英國的“書信體小說”,其名著為《克萊麗莎》(Clarissa, 1747—48)。同他齊名的是費爾丁(Henry Fielding, 1707—54),其名著為《湯姆·瓊斯》(Tom Jones, 1749)。這兩人是競爭對手,理查蓀長于心理分析,使所寫人物性格深化;費爾丁則善寫廣闊的生活畫景,巧于運用諷刺。另一位小說家斯莫力特(Tobias Smollett, 1721—71)以寫海員生活見長,喜歡描繪打斗和血淋淋的傷病情景。還有一位斯登恩(Laurence Sterne, 1713—68)則寫了一部奇特的長篇小說《屈里斯坦·先迪》(Tristram Shandy, 1760—67),其中時空顛倒,情節(jié)松散,運用了“意識流”技巧,在印刷字體、標點、空頁的使用上也別出心裁,后世的現(xiàn)代派小說的某些特點已經(jīng)在此出現(xiàn),可謂英國最早的實驗性寫作的大手筆。

這些人的散文各有千秋,我們只舉兩例。

其一是費爾丁所作《約瑟夫·安特魯斯》(Joseph Andrews, 1742)中的一個片段,講的是青年仆人約瑟夫在大路上遭到搶劫,被剝光衣服,又遭一陣毒打,呻吟于道旁溝中。不久來了一輛驛車,車夫和大多數(shù)乘客本不愿停車救他,只在一位律師指出如果不管,他們會有謀殺嫌疑之后,才不得不讓這個可憐人搭車。可是約瑟夫卻說自己赤身裸體,車上又有女客,不肯上車。寫到這里,費爾丁來了這樣一段文章:

Though there were several great coats about the coach, it was not easy to get over this difficulty which Joseph had started. The two gentlemen complained they were cold, and could not spare a rag; the man of wit saying, with a laugh, that charity began at home, and the coachman, who had two great coats spread under him, refused to lend either, lest they should be made bloody; the lady's footman desired to be excused for the same reason, which the lady herself, notwithstanding her abhorrence of a naked man, approved: and it is more than probable, poor Joseph, who obstinately adhered to his modest resolution, must have perished, unless the postilion, (a lad who hath been since transported for robbing a hen-roost) had voluntarily stripped off a great coat, his only garment, at the same time swearing a great oath, (for which he was rebuked by the passengers)" That he would rather ride in his shirt all his life, than suffer a fellow-creature to lie in so miserable a condition."


雖然車上有幾件大衣,但很難解決約瑟夫提出的難題。那兩位紳士抱怨天冷,說是沒法脫下任何衣服。那個愛說俏皮話的人笑著說了一句:仁愛先施于己。車夫雖然身下墊了兩件大衣,卻一件也不肯拿出來,因為怕沾上血跡,那位太太的仆人也用同樣的理由拒絕了,雖然太太本人極端憎惡裸體,卻認為仆人這樣做是對的。但是可憐的約瑟夫卻堅持非有衣服遮體不可,這樣他很可能就要死于傷凍了,要不是車夫的助手(這孩子后來因偷雞罪被判流放)自愿脫下了他的大衣(也是他僅有的一件外衣),口中罵了一聲,說“他寧愿一生只穿襯衣乘車,也決不讓一個同他一樣的人處于那種凄慘景況?!边@一罵引得旅客紛紛對他訓斥。

這就不只是客觀敘事,而是用了諷刺筆法,其鋒芒對準上層人士,揭出他們的自私和殘忍,只有一個下層青年——即那個車夫助手——才有同情心,把僅有的一件外衣脫下給了約瑟夫。他一說就干,同其他人提出各種借口形成對照,而他得自紳士太太們的只是訓斥,以后也未逃脫因小過失而被判重刑的命運。費爾丁的文章夾敘夾議,句子中間有不少插進的成分,不只寫當時每人姿態(tài),還提供背景和前景,所含的信息量就比笛福等人的句子要大多了。

第二例來自斯登恩的《屈里斯坦·先迪》。如上所述,這部小說結(jié)構(gòu)松散,但有幾個令人難忘的人物,特別是托比大叔。他打過仗,受過傷,但是心地非常善良,下面是他捉住了一只蒼蠅之后的舉動:

"I'll not hurt thee," says my uncle Toby, rising from his chair, and going across the room, with the fly in his hand,— "I'll not hurt a hair of thy head: —Go," says he, lifting up the sash, and opening his hand as he spoke, to let it escape; — "go, poor devil, get thee gone, why should I hurt thee?—This world surely is wide enough to hold both thee and me."


“我不會傷害你,”托比大叔說,一邊從椅子上站了起來,手里拿著這只蒼蠅,穿過房間走到窗口——“我不傷你一根毫毛。走吧!——”他掀起窗框,張開手掌,讓蒼蠅飛走?!白甙?,小可憐,好好走,我干嗎要傷害你呢?——這世界廣闊得很,容得下我,也容得下你?!?/p>

(卷二,第12章)

這里有對小動物的愛護,而最后一語更透露出托比大叔廣闊的同情心。這后者是一個新因素。斯登恩寫此書時已是十八世紀六十年代(1759—67),這時感傷主義已經(jīng)形成一種情感氣候,而感傷主義的中心正是這悲天憫人的同情心。

書以寫先迪生平為名,實際上只在開卷之初提到先迪生命的開始,后來就穿插了許多閑話,談別的事情,而且作者還為自己的寫法辯護,說:

Digressions, incontestably, are the sunshine; —they are the life, the soul of reading; —take them out of this book for instance,—you might as well take the book along with them.


閑話——無可爭辯地——是書中的陽光,是書的生命、靈魂;如果你把這本書里的閑話都拿走,那就不如把整本書也拿走好了。

(卷一,第22章)

而卷首提到先迪的母親是如何懷孕的一節(jié),也是奇文:

"Pray, my dear," quoth my mother, "have you not forgotten to wind up the clock?" — "Good G—! "cried my father, making an exclamation, but taking care to moderate his voice at the same time,— "Did ever woman, since the creation of the world, interrupt a man with such a silly question?"


“對了,親愛的,”我母親說,“你沒忘了上鐘吧?”——“上帝呀!”我父親叫道,但把聲音壓得很低,“自從創(chuàng)造世界以來,有哪個女人拿這樣的一個可笑問題來打斷過男人的?”

(卷一,第1章)

先迪當時還未誕生,卻在報告父母的床上談話了,這寫法本身就是奇特的。故意寫得奇特,而且以奇特自傲——這是斯登恩在向別的小說家挑戰(zhàn)了,他已不滿足于笛福等人的平鋪直敘,而要探索新的寫小說的路子,其實驗規(guī)模之大,涉及方面之廣是驚人的,無怪乎后世的現(xiàn)代主義作家,從喬伊斯到弗琴尼亞·吳爾夫,甚至今天的所謂后現(xiàn)代主義作家如福爾斯和卡爾維諾,都認他為精神上的祖先。

他的散文也寫得活潑,句子短,常有旁白、暗示,也不怕把隱秘的心情公之于眾,有時還流著眼淚叫喊幾聲——這后者在他的另一部作品《感傷的旅行》(A Sentimental Journey, 1768)中更明顯。雖然他也有時給人以做作、過分的印象,總的說來他的文章寫得“清澈如水,平易如談話,使人感到舒服”。〔1〕

關(guān)鍵人物斯威夫特

談到斯登恩和他的感傷主義,我們已到十八世紀后半葉?,F(xiàn)在我們要回頭去追敘一位英國散文史上的關(guān)鍵人物,即江納善·斯威夫特(Jonathan Swift, 1667—1745)。

他生在復辟時期之初,死在十八世紀四十年代之中,其一生包括了我們所討論的整個時期,而他不僅對于本時期的主要文學品種都作出了卓越貢獻,而且他的散文風格被后世樹為楷模,繼往開來,確是一個起樞紐作用的大家。

他寫了各種辯論文章、期刊雜文、布道文、小品文、公開信、寓言故事、詩,而且無論寫什么,都寫得有文采。他對于語言文字問題十分注意,多次寫文指摘僻詞、大字、俚語、行話、時髦詞、生造的“硬詞”種種。也是他提出了一個文章風格的有名定義:“把恰當?shù)脑~放在恰當?shù)奈恢茫@就是風格的真正定義。”(《致一位新任神職的青年先生的信》)

然而僅僅把他看成一個文章家,卻又是小看他了。就拿他這風格定義來說,他沒有談什么文章的美,而強調(diào)恰當?shù)脑~——恰當于所要表達的內(nèi)容,并要把它們放在恰當?shù)奈恢茫丛撏怀龅膽撏怀?。這就超出了普通對于修辭的考慮,而著重語言的準確表意了。那么,他要表達和突出的又是什么呢?他先后為輝格、托雷兩黨寫過政論,也參加過關(guān)于宗教的爭論,本人的思想也有過變化,因而所寫內(nèi)容廣泛,但是有一個主題卻是貫徹始終的,那就是反暴政,愛自由。他曾寫詩總結(jié)自己一生,有句云:

Fair LIBERTY was all his cry;

For her he stood prepar'd to die.

—On the Death of Dr. Swift

他全部要求只是自由公正,

為爭取它,寧可獻出生命。

——《詠斯威夫特教長之死》呂千飛譯文

特別在他晚年回到出生之地愛爾蘭之后,他更是同受壓迫的當?shù)厝嗣裾驹谝黄穑孟奈墓P寫出了《布商的信》和《一個小小的建議》等文,深刻地揭露英國統(tǒng)治者對愛爾蘭貧苦人民的剝削和殘酷,號召他們起來抗爭。我們今天還在讀這些文章,把它們當作文學名篇,這說明斯威夫特散文藝術(shù)的高超,竟能經(jīng)受住時間潮水的沖蝕,但是在當時這些卻不是為藝術(shù)而寫,而是作為政治斗爭的武器,寫法的高超只是增加了它們的顛覆性和破壞力,這才是“把恰當?shù)脑~放在恰當?shù)奈恢谩钡淖罡叩膶崿F(xiàn)。

在斯威夫特的武器庫里,諷刺是最厲害的一種,但又往往包藏在文雅的外衣之下?!兑粋€小小的建議》(A Modest Proposal, 1729)通篇是一大諷刺,然而出之以文雅的措詞,而且是鄭重其事地作為“一個公正、不費錢而又簡易可行的辦法”提出來的,自稱目的在于解決愛爾蘭窮人兒女過多而又無力養(yǎng)育的迫切問題。什么辦法呢?請看:

I have been assured by a very knowing American of my acquaintance in London, that a young healthy child well nursed is at a year old a most delicious, nourishing, and wholesome food, whether stewed, roasted, baked, or boiled; and I make no doubt that it will equally serve in a fricassee or a ragout.

I do therefore humbly offer it to public consideration, that, of the hundred and twenty thousand children already computed, twenty thousand may be reserved for breed, whereof only one fourth part to be males, which is more than we allow to sheep, black cattle, or swine; and my reason is that these children are seldom the fruits of marriage, a circumstance not much regarded by our savages; therefore one male will be sufficient to serve four females. That the remaining hundred thousand may at a year old be offered in sale to the persons of quality and fortune through the Kingdom, always advising the mother to let them suck plentifully in the last month, so as to render them plump and fat for a good table. A child will make two dishes at an entertainment for friends, and when the family dines alone, the fore or hind quarter will make a reasonable dish, and seasoned with a little pepper or salt will be very good boiled on the fourth day, especially in winter.

I have reckoned, upon a medium, that a child just born will weigh twelve pounds, and in a solar year if tolerably nursed increaseth to twenty-eight pounds.

I grant this food will be somewhat dear, and therefore very proper for landlords, who, as they have already devoured most of the parents, seem to have the best title to the children.

But as to myself, having been wearied out for many years with offering vain, idle, visionary thoughts, and at length utterly despairing of success, I fortunately fell upon this proposal; which, as it is wholly new, so it hath something solid and real, of no expense and little trouble, full in our own power, and whereby we can incur no danger in disobliging England. For this kind of commodity will not bear exportation, the flesh being of too tender a consistence to admit a long continuance in salt, although perhaps I could name a country which would be glad to eat up our whole nation without it.


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