Chapter 1 Introduction 1.1 What is an Embedded System? 1.2 What's Unique About the Design Goals for Embedded Software? 1.3 What Does "Real-Time" Mean? 1.4 What Does "Multitasking" Mean? 1.5 How Powerful Are Embedded Processors? 1.6 What Programming Languages Are Used? 1.7 What Is a "Real-Time Kernel"? 1.8 How Is Building an Embedded Application Unique? 1.9 How Big Are Typical Embedded Programs? 1.10 The Software Used in This Book Problems Chapter 2 Data Representation 2.1 Fixed-Precision Binary Numbers 2.1.1 Positional Number Systems 2.1.2 Binary-to-Decimal Conversion 2.1.3 Decimal-to-Binary Conversion 2.1.4 Counting 2.1.5 Fixed Precision and Rollover 2.1.6 Hexadecimal Representation 2.2 Binary Representation of Integers 2.2.1 Signed Integers 2.2.2 Positive and Negative Representations of the Same Magnitude 2.2.3 Interpreting the Value of a 2's-Complement Number 2.2.4 More on Range and Overflow 2.2.5 2's Complement and Hardware Complexity 2.3 Binary Representation of Real Numbers 2.3.1 Fixed-Point Representation 2.3.2 Fixed-Point Using a Universal 16.16 Format 2.3.3 Fixed-Point Using a Universal 32.32 Format 2.3.4 Floating-Point Representation 2.4 ASCII Representation of Text 2.5 Binary-Coded Decimal (BCD) Problems Chapter 3 Getting the Most Out of C 3.1 Integer Data Types 3.2 Mixing Data Types 3.3 Useful Typedefs and Defines 3.4 Manipulating Bits in Memory 3.4.1 Testing Bits 3.4.2 Setting, Clearing, and Inverting Bits 3.4.3 Extracting Bits 3.4.4 Inserting Bits 3.5 Manipulating Bits in I/O Ports 3.5.1 Write-Only I/O Ports 3.5.2 Ports Differentiated by Reads Versus Writes 3.5.3 Ports Differentiated by Sequential Access 3.5.4 Ports Differentiated by Bits in the Written Data 3.6 Accessing Memory-Mapped I/O Devices 3.6.1 Accessing Data Through a Pointer 3.6.2 Arrays, Pointers, and the "Address of" Operator 3.7 Structures 3.7.1 Packed Structures 3.7.2 Bit Fields 3.8 Variant Access 3.8.1 Casting the Address of an Object 3.8.2 Using Unions Problems Chapter 4 A Programmer's View of Computer Organization 4.1 Memory 4.2 The Central Processing Unit (CPU) 4.2.1 The Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) 4.2.2 Other Registers 4.2.3 The Control Unit 4.3 Input/Output (I/O) 4.4 Introduction to the Intel Architecture 4.4.1 Instruction Formats 4.4.2 Instruction Operands 4.4.3 Operand Restrictions 4.4.4 Registers 4.4.5 The Stack 4.5 The Intel Real Mode Architecture 4.5.1 Segmented Addressing 4.5.2 Addressing Modes 4.6 The Intel Protected Mode Architecture 4.6.1 Segment Registers and The Global Descriptor Table 4.6.2 The Flat Memory Model 4.6.3 Addressing Modes 4.7 Operand and Address-Size Override Prefixes 4.8 The Intel Data Manipulation Instructions 4.8.1 Data Movement, Stack, and I/O Instructions 4.8.2 Arithmetic Instructions 4.8.3 Bitwise Instructions 4.8.4 Shift Instructions Problems Chapter 5 Mixing C and Assembly 5.1 Programming in Assembly 5.2 Register Usage Conventions 5.3 Typical Use of Addressing Options 5.3.1 Accessing Data Whose Address is a Constant 5.3.2 Accessing Data Whose Address is a Variable 5.4 Instruction Sequencing 5.4.1 Compound Conditionals 5.4.2 If-Then-Else Statements 5.4.3 Building Loops 5.4.4 Faster Loops with String Instructions 5.5 Procedure Call and Return 5.6 Parameter Passing 5.7 Retrieving Parameters 5.8 Everything is Pass by Value 5.9 Temporary Variables Problems Chapter 6 Input/Output Programming 6.1 The Intel I/O Instructions 6.2 Synchronization, Transfer Rate, and Latency 6.3 Polled Waiting Loops 6.4 Interrupt-Driven I/O 6.4.1 The Hardware Response 6.4.2 The Interrupt Service Routine 6.4.3 Programmable Interrupt Controllers 6.4.4 Buffers and Queues 6.4.5 Writing Interrupt Service Routines in Assembly 6.4.6 Writing Interrupt Service Routines in C 6.4.7 Nonmaskable Interrupts 6.4.8 Software Interrupts 6.4.9 Exceptions 6.5 Direct Memory Access 6.5.1 Double Buffering 6.6 Comparison of Methods Problems Chapter 7 Concurrent Software 7.1 Foreground/Background Systems 7.1.1 Thread State and Serialization 7.1.2 Managing Latency 7.1.3 Preventing Interrupt Overrun 7.1.4 Moving Work into the Background 7.2 Multithreaded Programming 7.2.1 Concurrent Execution of Independent Threads 7.2.2 Context Switching 7.2.3 Nonpreemptive (Cooperative) Multitasking 7.2.4 Preemptive Multitasking 7.3 Shared Resources and Critical Sections 7.3.1 Disabling Interrupts 7.3.2 Disabling Task Switching 7.3.3 Spin Locks 7.3.4 Mutex Objects 7.3.5 Semaphores Problems Chapter 8 Scheduling 8.1 Thread States 8.2 Pending Threads 8.3 Context Switching 8.4 Round-Robin Scheduling 8.5 Priority-Based Scheduling 8.5.1 Priority Inversion 8.5.2 The Priority Inheritance Protocol 8.5.3 The Priority Ceiling Protocol 8.6 Assigning Priorities 8.6.1 Deadline-Driven Scheduling 8.6.2 Rate-Monotonic Scheduling 8.7 Deadlock 8.8 Watchdog Timers Problems Chapter 9 Memory Management 9.1 Objects in C 9.2 Scope 9.2.1 Refining Local Scope 9.2.2 Refining Global Scope 9.3 Lifetime 9.4 Automatic Allocation 9.4.1 Storage Class "Register" 9.5 Static Allocation 9.6 Three Programs to Distinguish Static from Automatic 9.6.1 Object Creation 9.6.2 Object Initialization 9.6.3 Object Destruction 9.7 Dynamic Allocation 9.7.1 Fragmentation 9.7.2 Memory Allocation Pools 9.8 Automatic Allocation with Variable Size (alloca) 9.8.1 Variable-Size Arrays 9.9 Recursive Functions and Memory Allocation Problems Chapter 10 Shared Memory 10.1 Recognizing Shared Objects 10.1.1 Shared Global Data 10.1.2 Shared Private Data 10.1.3 Shared Functions 10.2 Reentrant Functions 10.3 Read-Only Data 10.3.1 Type Qualifier "const" 10.4 Coding Practices to Avoid 10.4.1 Functions That Keep Internal State in Local Static Objects 10.4.2 Functions That Return the Address of a Local Static Object 10.5 Accessing Shared Memory 10.5.1 The Effect of Processor Word Size 10.5.2 Read-Only and Write-Only Access 10.5.3 Type Qualifier "volatile" Problems Chapter 11 System Initialization 11.1 Memory Layout 11.2 The CPU 11.2.1 Setting Up a Flat Memory Model 11.2.2 Switching into Protected Mode 11.3 C Run-Time Environment 11.3.1 Copying from ROM to RAM 11.3.2 Zeroing Uninitialized Statics 11.3.3 Setting Up a Heap 11.4 System Timer 11.4.1 Timer 0: Timer Tick 11.4.2 Timer 1: Memory Refresh 11.4.3 Timer 2: Speaker Frequency 11.5 Interrupt System 11.5.1 Initializing the IDT 11.5.2 Initializing the 8259 PICs 11.5.3 Installing a New Interrupt Service Routine Appendix A: Contents of the CD-ROM Appendix B: The DJGPP C/C++ Compiler Installation Compilation On-Line Documentation (Info) Appendix C: The NASM Assembler Installation Running NASM Appendix D: Programming Projects Files Required from the CD-ROM for All Applications Files Required for Nonpreemptive Multithreaded Applications Files Required for Preemptive Multithreaded Applications Compiling and Assembling Your Embedded Application Linking Your Embedded Application Preparing the Boot Diskette Running Your Embedded Application Appendix E: The LIBEPC Library Memory Layout and Initialization Display Functions (display.c) Window Functions (window.c) Keyboard Functions (keyboard.c) Speaker Functions (speaker.c) Timer Functions (timer.c, cycles.asm) Interrupt Vector Access Functions (init-idt.c) Dynamic Memory Allocation Functions (heap.c) Fixed Point (fixedpt.asm) Interfunction Jumps (setjmp.asm) Miscellaneous Functions (init-crt.c) Appendix F: The Boot Loader
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