Preface 1 Introduction The aims of the book The climate for language testing Research and development: needs and problems Research and development: an agenda Overview of the book Notes 2 Measurement Introduction Definition of terms: measurement, test, evaluation Essential measurement qualities Properties of measurement scales Characteristics that limit measurement Steps in measurement Summary Notes Further reading Discussion questions 3 Uses of Language Tests Introduction Uses of language tests in educational programs Research uses of language tests Features for classifying different types of language test Summary Further reading Discussion questions 4 Communicative Language Ability Introduction Language proficiency and communicative competence A theoretical framework of communicative language ability Summary Notes Further reading Discussion questions 5 Test Methods Introduction A framework of test method facets Applications of this framework to language testing Summary Notes Further reading Discussion questions 6 Reliability Introduction Factors that affect language test scores Classical true score measurement theory Generalizability theory Standard error of measurement: interpreting individual test scores within classical true score and generalizability theory Item response theory Reliability of criterion-referenced test scores Factors that affect reliability estimates Systematic measurement error Summary Notes Further reading Discussion questions 7 Validation Introduction Reliability and validity revisited Validity as a unitary concept The evidential basis of validity Test bias The consequential or ethical basis of validity Post mortem: face validity Summary Notes Further reading Discussion questions 8 Some Persistent Problems and Future Directions Introduction Authentic language tests Some future directions A general model for explaining performance on language tests Apologia et prolegomenon Summary Notes Further reading Discussion questions Bibliography Author index Subject index
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