PrefacebyHalliday
王宗炎序
PrefacebyChomsky
沈家煊序
導(dǎo)讀
PREFACE
I.Introductory:LanguageDefined
Languageacultural,notabiologicallyinherited,function.Futility
ofinterjectionmalandsound-imitativetheoriesoftheoriginofspeech.
Definitionoflanguage.Thepsycho-physicalbasisofspeech.Concepts
andlanguage.Isthoughtpossiblewithoutlanguage?Abbreviations
andtransfersofthespeechprocess.Theuniversalityoflanguage.
II.TheElementsofSpeech
Soundsnotproperlyelementsofspeech.Wordsandsignificantpartsof
words(radicalelements,grammaticalelements).Typesofwords.
Thewordaformal,notafunctionalunit.Thewordhasarealpsy-
chologicalexistence.Thesentence.Thecognitive,volitional,and
emotionalaspectsofspeech.Feelingtonesofwords.
III.TheSoundsofLanguage
Thevastnumberofpossiblesounds.Thearticulatingorgansandtheir
shareintheproductionofspeechsounds:lungs,glottalcords,nose,
mouthanditsparts.Vowelarticulations.Howandwhereconsonants
arearticulated.Thephonetichabitsofalanguage.The"values"of
sounds.Phoneticpatterns.
IV.ForminLanguage:GrammaticalProcesses
Formalprocessesasdistinctfromgrammaticalfunctions.Intercrossing
ofthetwopointsofview.Sixmaintypesofgrammaticalprocess.
Wordsequenceasamethod.Compoundingofradicalelements.
Affixing:prefixesandsuffixes;infires.Internalvocalicchange;
consonantalchange.Reduplication.Functionalvariationsofstress;
ofpitch.
V.ForminLanguage:GrammaticalConcepts
AnalysisofatypicalEnglishsentence.Typesofconceptsillustratedby
it.Inconsistentexpressionofanalogousconcepts.Howthesamesen-
tencemaybeexpressedinotherlanguageswithstrikingdifferencesin
theselectionandgroupingofconcepts.Essentialandnon-essentialcon-
cepts.Themixingofessentialrelationalconceptswithsecondaryonesof
moreconcreteorder.Formforform'ssake.Classificationoflinguistic
concepts:basicorconcrete,derivational,concreterelational,purere-
lational.Tendencyforthesetypesofconceptstoflowintoeachother.
Categoriesexpressedinvariousgrammaticalsystems.Orderandstress
asrelatingprinciplesinthesentence.Concord.Partsofspeech:noab-
soluteclassificationpossible;nounandverb.
VI.TypesofLinguisticStructure
Thepossibilityofclassifyinglanguages.Difficulties.Classification
intoformlanguagesandformlesslanguagesnotvalid.Classification
accordingtoformalprocessesusednotpracticable.Classificationac-
cordingtodegreeofsynthesis."Inflective"and"agglutinative."Fu-
sionandsymbolismaslinguistictechniques.Agglutination."Inflec-
tive"aconfusedterm.Threefoldclassificationsuggested:whattypes
ofconceptsareexpressed?whatistheprevailingtechnique?whatisthe
degreeofsynthesis?Fourfundamentalconceptualtypes.Examples
tabulated.Historicaltestofthevalidityofthesuggestedconceptual
classification.
VII.LanguageasaHistoricalProduct:Drift
Variabilityoflanguage.Individualanddialecticvariations.Time
variationor"drift."Howdialectsarise.Linguisticstocks.Direction
or"slope"oflinguisticdrift.TendenciesillustratedinanEnglish
sentence.Hestiationsofusageassymptomaticofthedirectionofdrift.
LevelingtendenciesinEnglish.Weakeningofcaseelements.Tendency
tofixedpositioninthesentence.Drifttowardtheinvariableword.
VIII.LanguageasaHistoricalProduct:PhoneticLaw
Parallelsindriftinrelatedlanguages.Phoneticlawasillustratedin
thehistoryofcertainEnglishandGermanvowelsandconsonants.Reg-
ularityofphoneticlaw.Shiftingofsoundswithoutdestructionofpho-
neticpattern.Difficultyofexplainingthenatureofphoneticdrifts.
VowelmutationinEnglishandGerman.Morphologicalinfluenceon
phoneticchange.Analogicallevelingstooffsetirregularitiesproduced
byphoneticlaws.Newmorphologicalfeaturesduetophoncticchange.
IX.HowLanguagesInfluenceEachOther
Linguisticinfluencesduetoculturalcontact.Borrowingofwords.
Resistancestoborrowing.Phoneticmodificationofborrowedwords.
Phoneticinterinfluencingsofneighboringlanguages.Morphological
borrowings.Morphologicalresemblancesasvestigesofgeneticrelation-
ship.
X.Language,RaceandCulture
Naivetendencytoconsiderlinguistic,racial,andculturalgroupings
ascongruent.Raceandlanguageneednotcorrespond.Culturaland
linguisticboundariesnotidentical.Coincidencesbetweenlinguistic
cleavagesandthoseoflanguageandcultureduetohistorical,not
intrinsicpsychological,causes.Languagedoesnotinanydeepsense
"reflect"culture.
XI.LanguageandLiterature
Languageasthematerialormediumofliterature.Literaturemay
moveonthegeneralizedlinguisticplaneormaybeinseparablefrom
specificlinguisticconditions.Languageasacollectiveart.Necessary
estheticadvantagesorlimitationsinanylanguage.Styleasconditioned
byinherentfeaturesofthelanguage.Prosodyasconditionedbythe
phoneticdynamicsofalanguage.
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